International Security & Counter-Terrorism Reference Center

This article examines the gender gap in national security institutions as a multidimensional phenomenon shaped by both structural inequalities and discursive biases. While gender equality is increasingly recognized as a factor contributing to organizational effectiveness and institutional legitimacy, significant disparities persist, particularly at higher hierarchical levels. The study addresses how structural factors and public discourse interact in sustaining gender inequality within the security sector. The research applies a mixed-methods design, combining quantitative analysis of survey data (N = 128) from defense, law enforcement, and internal security institutions with computational discourse analysis of 148 media publications (2019–2024). The findings reveal statistically significant vertical gender segregation: women are less likely to occupy leadership positions and experience slower career progression. Gender remains a significant predictor of leadership attainment even after controlling for professional variables. Women also report greater exposure to stereotypical evaluations and limited access to informal professional networks, indicating persistent informal organizational barriers. Discourse analysis shows that women are more frequently represented as exceptional or defined by personal characteristics, whereas men are portrayed in neutral, professional terms. This symbolic “markedness” reinforces gendered perceptions of competence and normalizes male dominance in leadership roles. Topic modeling further identifies a distinct discursive cluster that frames women as a separate category, emphasizing challenges and gender-specific narratives. By integrating structural and discourse data, the study demonstrates a consistent association between institutional inequalities and patterns of public representation. The findings suggest that structural and symbolic factors operate as interconnected mechanisms sustaining gender inequality. The study contributes to the field by introducing an integrated analytical framework that combines data science methods with gender and discourse analysis in the context of national security, offering both theoretical insight and practical implications for policy and institutional reform.

The dichotomy or synergy, when law enforcement, which has the main function to stand for the rule of law, and also for human rights may be discussed from several perspectives, such as the role of emotional intelligence or effective performance. When it is doubtful that a direct and one-sided answer will be formulated, it is, however, important to ask the questions in a democratic country. Human history, at least the one recorded in writing or preserved in technological artefacts such as cities, irrigation, and similar, spans approximately 10 thousand years or so (at least until new findings are uncovered), but the history of democracy is rather short. Apart from the rather limited and short-lived form of democracy in Antiquity (Ancient Greece), the more recent democratic thought and its manifestations do not extend beyond 300 years. The urgency of discussions about what it means to live in a democracy is rooted in the fact that democracy remains rather fragile and limited globally: the Democracy Index does not increase; rather, it declines. Not even half of the world’s population lives in a democracy: specifically, 45%. Then 39% live under authoritarian rule, and 15% in “hybrid regimes” that combine electoral democracy with authoritarian tendencies. Thus, anyone who lives among those 45% has both expectations and a certain responsibility to live up to and respect the privileges we enjoy. Thus, it is imperative to discuss how our state and its institutions, specifically, the police force, function. The aimofthis paper is to discuss whether there are preconditions for promoting a paradigm of thinking, where requirements and expectations for police officers are in synergy with the support they need in their demanding work.The empirical data were collected during the 1st quarter of 2026, under the framework of the POL-COM (KA220-VET -Cooperation partnerships in vocational education and training project: A developmental and educational platform and gamified tools for training police officers and similar professionals, with respect to communications) project.

Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjamos jaunų suaugusiųjų socialinio nerimo, perfekcionizmo ir suvokiamų tėvystės stilių sąsajos. Tyrimo aktualumą lemia didėjantis perfekcionizmo paplitimas šiuolaikinėje visuomenėje, socialinių medijų įtaka tapatumo formavimuisi bei augantis socialinio nerimo aktualumas tarp jaunų žmonių. Straipsnyje remiamasi teorinėmis socialinio nerimo, perfekcionizmo ir tėvystės stilių sampratomis, aptariami pagrindiniai šių reiškinių tarpusavio ryšiai. Tyrime dalyvavo 139 asmenys, kurių amžius svyravo nuo 18 iki 29 metų. Duomenys rinkti naudojant šiuos standartizuotus instrumentus: Tėvų autoritetingumo klausimynas (PAQ), Socialinės fobijos klausimynas (SPIN) bei Daugiamačio perfekcionizmo skalė (MPS). Tyrime buvo skaičiuojamas instrumentų patikimumas, atlikta aprašomoji statistika, taikomas Student t-testas nepriklausomoms imtims bei atlikta Pearson koreliacinė analizė. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, jog jauni suaugusieji patyrė vidutinio arba aukšto išreikštumo socialinį nerimą, tačiau moterys jautė aukštesnį socialinio nerimo lygį nei vyrai. Lyčių skirtumų perfekcionizmo dimensijų atžvilgiu rasta nebuvo. Tyrimas taip pat atskleidė, jog suvoktas autoritarinis auklėjimo stilius buvo teigiamai susijęs su socialiai priskirtu ir į save orientuotu perfekcionizmu bei socialiniu nerimu. Leidžiantis auklėjimo stilius nebuvo susijęs nei su socialiniu nerimu, nei su atskiromis perfekcionizmo dimensijomis, o autoritetingas auklėjimo stilius buvo neigiamai susijęs su socialiai priskirtu perfekcionizmu. Gauti rezultatai pabrėžia ankstyvųjų tėvystės patirčių ir perfekcionistinių nuostatų svarbą jaunų suaugusiųjų psichologinei gerovei bei socialinio nerimo formavimuisi.

This paper is dedicated to exploring the context of some of the research questions that are at the heart of the research project („Policijos veiksmų modeliavimas siekiant padidinti bendruomenės saugumą krizinėse situacijose“/ “Modeling the Police activity for the enhanced security of communities during crises/adverse situations” (No. S-LU-26-3) 2026-2027, which is financed by the Lithuanian Research Council). While the issues of what is the difference between security and safety have been explored in-depth by one of the authors of this paper1and2; another theme of utmost importance is contextualization of police (law enforcement in general, please, note, law enforcement and police will be used in an intermingled manner further on, as synonyms, though, surely, there is a difference between the terms). At the same time, the fabric of contemporary society is being analyzed. However, in this paper the main focus is on the relative, perceived, and also reported preparedness of police to react to adverse/crises, which -the authors of these lines will bethe first to admit -were not the direct focus. In contrast, the second publication was developed in 2021. That is, when the full-fledged war in Ukraine was still in the feared, but not yet manifested, future. We, researchers, have to come to terms, that sometimes our predictions, the feeling of unease that we try to communicate to the wider society, are unpopular at the time of communication, and may be even both not helpful and depressing, when the predictions come to be true; and yet, even if a small proportion of compatriots are made aware of the trends and either re-configure their professional lives, and/or contribute to the best of their abilities to building up wider resilience, the likelihood of a lesser degree of losses increases. This is especially true for professionals, particularly those who work directly in critical institutions, such as medical care providers and other critical services providers, such as law enforcement.

This study investigates the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and foreign language learning outcomes among first-year students from Vilnius University Business School (VU BS) and Mykolas Romeris University (MRU). A total of 205 students with B2 English proficiency participated: 137 VU BS students (business/academic English) and 68 MRU students (criminal justice/language). Using a structured questionnaire with five Likert-scale items, the study assessed multiple EI dimensions, including emotional recognition and management, collaboration, stress management, and intercultural communication, alongside measures of language learning performance. Results indicate significant differences between the two student groups: VU BS students excel in social-emotional and intercultural EI dimensions, enhancing their capacity for negotiation, networking, and international communication, whereas MRU students demonstrate stronger self-control, emotional regulation, and conflict-resolution abilities, which are critical for law enforcement, security, and sustainable public safety practices. Statistical analysis confirmed moderate effect sizes (Cohen’s d = 0.3–0.5) for key EI differences. The study further emphasizes that integrating EI development into foreign language education through interactive, experiential, and gamified approaches can simultaneously enhance academic performance, professional readiness, and intercultural competence. These findings underscore the strategic value of embedding EI-focused training in higher education curricula, providing evidence-based guidance for educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers to foster graduates who are both academically proficient and emotionally adept, capable of contributing effectively to diverse professional and societal contexts.

The right to compensation for damage is guaranteed by the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania and further regulated by the Civil Code. Where a person dies as a result of unlawful conduct, compensation may be awarded for both pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage. Although Lithuanian law establishes general criteria for assessing non-pecuniary damage, it neither defines the relative importance of these criteria nor sets minimum or maximum compensation amounts. As a result, the assessment of non-pecuniary damage largely depends on judicial discretion and the development of case law. Due to its intangible nature, determining appropriate compensation remains one of the most complex issues in cases involving the death of a person. This article examines the legal framework governing compensation for damage resulting from the death of a person and analyses Lithuanian judicial practice between 1 January 2020 and 1 September 2025. The study is based on an analysis of 101 court cases and 102 individual claims. The latter number reflects situations in which several claimants sought compensation within the same proceedings. To evaluate the individual relationship between each claimant and the deceased, every claimant was examined separately. Particular attention is paid to the criteria applied by courts when assessing non-pecuniary damage, including the relationship between the claimant and the deceased, the defendant’s financial situation, and the circumstances surrounding the death. The findings identify the main trends in Lithuanian judicial practice and the factors influencing the determination of compensation in cases involving the death of a person. They also identify the compensation amounts most commonly awarded by courts and the factors that most significantly influence judicial decision-making in such cases.

This article examines the grounds of discrimination and the forms of their manifestation in the educational sphere through the practice of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson of the Republic of Lithuania. The purpose of the article is to determine which grounds of discrimination predominated in the Ombudsperson’s educational practice during the period 2015–2026 and to identify the institutional settings in which these grounds manifested themselves. The object of the research consists of the body of decisions and opinions adopted by the Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson in matters related to education in 2015–2026, supplemented by the annual activity reports of the Ombudsperson for 2015–2025 insofar as they are relevant to the educational context. The empirical corpus comprises 34 decisions and opinions covering preschool, primary, lower secondary, upper secondary, vocational and higher education, as well as cases concerning national assessment procedures and final examinations. The annual reports are used as an additional source for identifying broader institutional priorities and structural trends in the Ombudsperson’s educational practice. The research is based on document analysis, qualitative content analysis, systemic analysis and comparative analysis. The findings demonstrate that the most prominent grounds of discrimination in the educational sphere were sex, disability and social status. Complaints on the ground of sex were primarily related to gender-based allocation of activities, stereotypical organisation of education, school uniform rules, pregnancy and maternity in higher education, and harassment. Disability-based complaints mainly concerned inclusive education, accessibility of educational services, reasonable accommodation, assessment procedures and adaptation of national examinations. Complaints on the ground of social status were most often linked to admission criteria, access to paid or restricted educational services, the structure of competitive admission scores and the reconciliation of studies with family responsibilities. Less frequently, but still in a legally significant manner, complaints were submitted on the grounds of language, nationality, citizenship, origin, religion and beliefs, sexual orientation and age. The analysis shows that the Ombudsperson’s educational practice reveals not merely a broad spectrum of prohibited grounds but also distinct patterns of manifestation across different levels of education. Equality in education therefore extends beyond formal admission or participation and includes educational content, institutional rules, service accessibility, academic culture, assessment systems and the accessibility of state-organised examinations. The article concludes that the Ombudsperson’s practice serves not only as a mechanism for individual rights protection but also as an important instrument for identifying structural problems in education law and policy.

Regional development policy across the European Union continues to rely predominantly on growth-oriented metrics such as GDP, employment rates, investment absorption and productivity indices to evaluate whether regions are progressing. Yet these measures are structurally blind to two conditions fundamental to long-term societal security: social sufficiency floors, meaning minimum acceptable standards of well-being and inclusion, and environmental sustainability ceilings, meaning maximum levels of ecological pressure compatible with stable, liveable communities. This paper argues that this measurement gap constitutes a genuine security vulnerability: one that allows regions to appear successful on paper while social deprivation deepens and environmental conditions deteriorate.Drawing on the beyond-GDP economics literature, human and societal security studies, and EU cohesion policy evaluation research, the paper develops three interlocking arguments. First, dominant evaluation frameworks are structurally insensitive to social shortfalls and environmental overshoot: regional well-being measures and GDP diverge systematically at NUTS-2 level, and cohesion policy assessments anchored in growth metrics fail to detect environmentally meaningful progress. Second, these omissions correspond to documented security pathways: persistent regional inequality erodes institutional trust, fuels populist voting and generates political instability, while environmental deterioration creates deferred but compounding insecurity through climate exposure, health burdens and transition risk. Third, a dual-boundary approach that assesses regions against explicit social sufficiency floors and environmental sustainability ceilings as joint necessary conditions offers a principled and practically feasible direction for evaluation reform. This approach adapts the intellectual lineage running from Rockström et al. (2009) and Dearing et al. (2014) through Raworth's Doughnut Economics (2017), translating the insight that the central policy question should be not merely how much growth, but whether societies are operating in a space that is simultaneously sufficient and sustainable, into the EU regional development and cohesion policy context.These arguments are illustrated at two territorial scales. At the national level, a comparison of Lithuania and the Netherlands demonstrates that GDP convergence and dual-boundary performance are empirically decoupled: Lithuania records strong GDP growth yet fails its social sufficiency floor, while the Netherlands meets social conditions but presses its environmental ceiling. At the urban level, Rotterdam illustrates the same decoupling within a single prosperous city: strong aggregate economic performancecoexists with concentrated social deprivation in specific districts and one of Europe's largest sources of industrial greenhouse gas emissions. The main finding is that current metrics systematically reward growth while remaining insensitive to the structural conditions upon which durable regional security depends, and that this failure is detectable at both national and urban scales.

The employment of minors in Lithuania is characterised by specific legal requirements and safeguards aimed at protecting their health, education, and overall well-being. As the participation of minors in the labour market continues to increase, the practical implementation of these safeguards becomes increasingly important. Although Lithuanian legislation establishes a comprehensive legal framework governing the employment of minors, questions remain regarding the effectiveness of its implementation in practice. The aim of this study is to analyse the national legal framework governing the employment of persons under eighteen years of age and to identify the main legal and practical issues arising in employment relationships involving minor employees. The research is based on document analysis, comparative analysis, and a quantitative survey of individuals who worked in Lithuania before reaching the age of eighteen. A total of 103 employment experiences were analysed.The results demonstrate that Lithuanian legislation generally complies with international and European Union standards and provides a broad system of safeguards for minor employees. However, the empirical study revealed significant shortcomings in the practical implementation of these safeguards. The most common violations were related to employment formalities, working and rest time requirements, occupational safety and health, unofficial wage payments, and age-based discrimination. The findings also indicate insufficient awareness of employment rights among minors and a low tendency to seek assistance when faced with potential violations. The study concludes that, despite the existence of a comprehensive legal framework, the protection of minor employees in practice remains insufficient. Strengthening supervision mechanismsand improving minors’ awareness of their employment rights are essential for ensuring more effective implementation of existing legal safeguards.

Negative statistical data and the resulting trends indicate an exclusively worsening situation regarding the phenomenon of forced labor and its proliferation globally, as well as a considerably troubling situation in Lithuania. Moreover, the causality of forced labor, linked to contemporary realities -such as the migration of daily life into the digital sphere or even the war in Ukraine -further substantiates the trends of the consistent spread of this negative phenomenon. This demonstrates the relevance of the topic and underscores the need to continue research into the challenges surrounding the regulation and application of criminal liability for exploitation for forcedlabor in Lithuanian law. The research results of this article aim not only to provide new knowledge about exploitation for forced labor (services) as a criminal offense, but also to enable a better understanding of the newly emerging weaknesses in its legal elements, as well as the new challenges that arise when incriminating such acts in practice. Therefore, the purpose of the research is to analyze the problems of qualifying exploitation for forced labor (services) as a criminal offense in Lithuanian criminal law, thereby aiming to better understand the legal construction of this offense and identify the weaknesses in its constituent elements. Consequently, the tasks of the research are based on three main areas of this analysis: namely, the assessment ofthe objective and subjective elements of exploitation for forced labor (services), as well as the evaluation of additional qualifying features in Lithuanian criminal law. The article utilizes research methods such as comparative analysis, document analysis, systematic analysis, and generalization methods. The analysis in this article substantiated the difficulties arising in the assessment of certain objective and subjective elements of exploitation for forced labor (services) as a criminal offense, and provided specific solutions related to the proper evaluation of the modus operandi, the determination of guilt, and additional qualifying features, such as forcing someone to work under conditions of slavery or other inhuman conditions.