De Lima Valenca Pinto, Luis Miguel

Urban expansion alters land surfaces and local climate. Therefore, it is essential to assess the impact of urbanisation on microclimate regulation. In this work, we assessed the land surface temperature (LST) in a neighbourhood located in Vilnius (Jeruzale), Lithuania, using a thermal unmanned aerial vehicle to map microclimate regulation using LST and a proxy. The thermal images were validated with ground temperature measurements of different land uses (urban, grassland, and forest). The results showed that the model validation was accurate (adjusted R2= 0.941; RMSE: 1.522) considering all the land uses. The validation was better in urban surfaces (adjusted R2= 0.992; RMSE: 0.409) than in forested areas (adjusted R2= 0.520; RMSE: 2.187). Urbanised areas had a reduced capacity to regulate the microclimate compared to forested areas. Also, it creates a heterogeneous mosaic in temperature distribution. There were significant differences between microclimate regulation among land uses. UAV and ground-measured temperatures were significantly higher in urban areas than in forested ones.

Urban lakes supply many ecosystem services and are very much appreciated for recreational activities. For this, water quality is a key aspect. In this work, we monitored water physical-chemical variables, including temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) concentrations in an urban lake located in Vilnius in Summer and Autumn. Per season, 20 samples were collected. The results showed that temperature, pH, EC, N, P and K were significantly higher in Summer than in Autumn, while the opposite was identified in TDS. pH and temperature were negatively associated with TDS, and pH, EC, N, P and K were negatively associated with the previous elements. Data variability was higher in the Summer than in the Autumn. Overall, the highest concentrations of nutrients combined with high temperatures can promote water eutrophication and reduce the lake's capacity for recreation.

Radiation exists naturally in the environment. However, human activities, especially those related to nuclear weapons, energy generation, and medical infrastructures, can increase radioactivity levels in air, soil, and water, threatening human health. Both urban and rural populations can be exposed to radioactivity, making mapping an essential tool for a better understanding of radiation concentration. In this work, we developed a “walk-borne” survey methodology to map real-time gamma radiation (count and dose rate) in an urban area (Vilnius, Lithuania) using a small portable spectrometer (RadiaCode). A detailed method was developed considering 1) RadiaCode test in the field, 2) study site selection, 3) transect design to map count and dose rate, 4) RadiaCode map settings preparation, 5) fieldwork and data preparation, 6) data download and processing, and 7) statistical and spatial analysis. This method will be key to identifying potential radiation sources and accumulation that can be transferable to other environments. • A novel “walk-borne” survey methodology was developed to map real-time gamma-ray radiation using a small portable spectrometer; • High-resolution mapping of potential radiation sources can be identified with their implications for human health • This method can help identify areas with potential radiation risks.

The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA-EA) was set as an international standard framework for integrating and relating economic and environmental statistical data. Since its adoption in 2021, several scientific efforts have been established to operationalise it. Systematic literature reviews are essential for providing a comprehensive worldview on specific topics, exploring gaps, and defining future directions. In this study, we systematically review ecosystem accounting studies in the context of SEEA-EA and collate information on several aspects of its multiple accounts: ecosystem extent, condition, ecosystem services and assets. To narrow the scope, we focus our research on three ecosystem types: urban, forest and coastal and marine ecosystems. The results showed an increasing interest in the topic among scientists. Most of the works were published between 2014 and 2024 (75 studies – 98.68%) and conducted in Europe and Oceania (61 studies – 80.26%). Ecosystem extent and services (monetary) were the most studied aspects; however, most studies do not compile information on opening/closing tables. The revised studies covered other ecosystem types besides the target ones (e.g., croplands). Extent accounts were compiled mainly using European and National land cover datasets. Condition accounts were mostly compiled based on compositional state characteristics, especially using biophysical indicators. Most studies failed to define reference conditions. Regarding ecosystem services (ES), most studies focused on physical and monetary accounts, using mixed methodological approaches. Most works assessed one section, primarily regulating & maintenance ES. Statistical data and market prices for biophysical and economic methodologies were preferred methods. Validation and mapping were not considered in the majority of the works. Future priorities, which are also challenges, on applying the SEEA-EA include developing guidance for (1) systematically defining appropriate reference conditions, (2) validating ES modelling outputs or at least reporting uncertainty levels, and (3) making the connection, often missing, between condition and ES accounts.

Coastal and marine ecosystems supply multiple Ecosystem Services (ES). Nevertheless, these ecosystems are among the most impacted by human activities, harming the ES sustainable supply. Since ES are a spatial phenomenon, mapping can contribute to understand ES supply. For this, we use quantitative spatio-temporal frameworks to map and assess the supply of one provisioning (food from fisheries) and two regulating ES (nursery habitats and nutrient regulation), considering two periods: Baltic Sea Holistic Assessment (HOLAS) 2 (2011–2016) and 3 (2016–2021). The ES supply was assessed following a process-based modelling approach, using bio-physical indicators as proxies. The three ES models were applied and validated, showing moderate results. For fisheries and nursery ES the results showed a significantly higher supply in HOLAS 3 than in 2, and for nutrient ES the opposite. This indicates that the assessed ES changed due to environmental activities. The Anselin Local Moran's results showed that most ES index values aggregate in the High-High cluster; Moran's I and semi-variogram results showed a clustered pattern; and the Getis Ord* analysis showed that hot and cold spots corresponded to high and low supply areas. For fisheries, high ES supply areas were located in the central-southern part of the Baltic Sea, while low-supply regions were located in the northern part. For nursery ES, high supply areas were located in the southwestern Finnish and western Estonian coasts. For nutrient ES, high supply areas occurred in the central- and eastern-southern parts close to the coast. Correlations showed a statistically significant negative correlation between fisheries and nursery ES and a significant positive correlation between fisheries and nutrient ES. No statistically significant correlations were observed between nursery and nutrient ES supply. The results obtained are essential to support coastal and marine management and planning in the Baltic Sea as well as international environmental policies and directives.

Protected areas (PAs) supply ecosystem services (ES) essential for human wellbeing. Mapping is a critical exercise that allows an understanding of the spatial distribution of the different ES in PAs. This work aims to conduct a systematic literature review on mapping ES in PAs. In order to carry out this systematic review, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses method was applied. The results showed an increase in the number of works between 2012 and 2023, and they were especially conducted in Europe and Asia and less in North America, South America, and Oceania. Most studies were developed in terrestrial areas, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature classified them into types II and IV. Most of the works followed the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment classification and were mainly focused on the supply dimension. Regulating and maintenance and cultural ES were the most mapped dimensions in PAs. The most frequent provisioning ES mapped in PAs were Animals reared for nutritional purposes and Cultivated terrestrial plants grown for nutritional purposes. In regulating and maintenance, Maintaining nursery populations and habitats and Regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans were the most analysed. For cultural ES, Characteristics of living systems that enable activities promoting health, recuperation, or enjoyment through active or immersive interactions and Characteristics of living systems that enable aesthetic experiences were the most mapped ES in PAs. Most works followed a quantitative approach, although the number of qualitative studies is high. Finally, most of the works needed to be validated, which may hamper the credibility of mapping ES in PAs. Overall, this systematic review contributed to a global picture of studies distribution, the areas where they are needed, and the most popular dimensions and sections as the methodologies were applied.

Lakes supply multiple ecosystem services (ES), key to supporting socio-ecologic systems and human well-being. In the context of future land use and climate changes, it is imperative to anticipate potential impacts on lake ES supply. Hence, studies that deal with future lake ES, such as mapping, are lacking. In this work, we mapped and assessed the future supply of three ES: (1) maintenance of nursery conditions (nursery ES), (2) maintenance of chemical conditions of freshwaters (nutrient regulation ES), and (3) direct and indirect cultural outputs (recreation ES) in Lithuania. Four future scenarios were utilised, integrating land use and climate changes: A0 - business as usual; A1-urbanisation; A2: land abandonment and afforestation; and A3 - agricultural intensification. The projected year was 2050, following the intermediate Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP 4.5). The future scenarios were simulated using the open-source software Dinamica EGO based on a 6-step modelling framework. Statistical differences among the scenarios and ES were analysed by applying a Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA test. Spatial analysis was done by performing a Moran's I and Getis-Ord (Gi∗) hotspot analysis. The results showed significant differences in nursery and nutrient regulation ES. The highest supply in nursery ES was observed for the A0 scenario. For nutrient regulation ES, the lowest ES supply was identified for the A1 scenario and for recreation ES, the highest was found in the A2 scenario. The eastern and northeastern regions of Lithuania showed a high ES supply. Hot spots were only identified in the eastern region. These regions are associated with a high area covered by forests and protected areas. The central region shows a low ES supply, identified as a cold spot where the agricultural landscape dominates. The results of the PCA analysis revealed an association between nursery and recreation ES. Nutrient regulation was not associated with the other two ES. Mapping and assessing the impact of future scenarios is vital to anticipating the potential dynamics of lake ES, especially in the context of climate change. This information is essential in the context of environmental management, helping decision-makers to ensure a sustainable ES supply and contributing to human wellbeing.

Ecosystem services are key for human well-being. They usually are divided into Regulating, Provisioning and Cultural. Due to the impacts of fossil fuels on climate change, alternative energy resources are needed to revert this effect. Renewable energy resources are a good solution. Among them, wind energy can be a good alternative. To better understand the territory's capacity to supply this type of energy, mapping is needed in order to have a spatial understanding of the potential. This work aims to map and assess Wind Energy Potential, Supply and Flow in Lithuania. The results showed that the highest potential was identified near the coast and in the southwest area of the country. Wind Energy Potential was significantly higher in the coastal area and low in the rest of the territory. Wind Energy Flow was the highest in the largest cities (e.g., Vilnius and Kaunas). The correlation between all the components was low. Getis Ord* hot spot analysis confirmed the spatial patterns identified above.

Nature-based solutions (NBS) are key for urban flood mitigation. Undoubtedly NBS provides a range of ecosystem services, though their performance and effectiveness under different impacts and conditions are still under research. This study aimed to investigate the NBS's effectiveness in regulating floods. Different normalised difference vegetation index, enhanced vegetation index, modified soil adjusted vegetation index, soil adjusted vegetation index, tree density and soil hardness (ground data) were assessed. The results showed that the relation between spectral indexes, tree density and soil hardness was low, showing that the presence of vegetation is not a good predictor of the capacity to regulate floods. Soil management (e.g., grass cut) affects soil hardness, reducing the capacity to retain water. Future works must combine remote/proximal sensing with fieldwork to validate the spectral images. Overall, according to the obtained results, due to management, NBS have a reduced flood regulation capacity.

With growing urban populations and increasing demands for more liveable, healthy and resilient cities, green infrastructure (GI) emerged over the last decade as a strategy to improve the quality of life in urban areas, delivering ecological, socio-cultural and economic benefits. To reach the European Union’s political ambitions, it is vital that the concept and its content are used consistently and coherently from national to local scale. Regarding the content, the ambiguity of the multifunctionality characteristic of GI presents an opportunity for adaptation to local values, while also risking to remain a vague and abstract promise. A policy analysis was conducted in four European cities to investigate the uptake of the GI concept in policies relevant for urban green spaces and if it is in line with EU’s understanding. Additionally, we investigate through interviews how interactions between agencies contribute to the mainstreaming of the concept to the municipal level. We found variations in uptake level and interpretation, which can partly be explained by the competition of new and established concepts, and existing structures (legislation and routines of practice). Each case study made multifunctionality concrete by linking multiple values to it, although the amount of values and depth of consideration differs. We found interactions between policymakers themselves, as well with science and civil society, contributing to the mainstreaming of the concept.